Gender Equity
in Sports Study Guide .7
A. Introduction
to Gender Equity
Female
athletes have been working for equity in sports for many years. Before the seventies few women were college
athletes. In the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA), a national interest group composed of
universities concerned with collegiate athletics, women made up 15 percent of
college athletes in 1972. Athletic
scholarships and funding overwhelmingly favored men’s sports.
Since
the passing of Title IX of the Civil Rights Act the changes have been
dramatic. In the NCAA, women’s participation
in sports has increased threefold and according to the U.S. Department of
Education, part of the federal bureaucracy in the executive branch,
40 percent of college athletes are now women.
Although
women’s participation in college athletics has increased due to Title IX, some
believe Title IX is a type of discrimination.
Because Title IX requires institutions to have a percentage of women
students similar to the percentage of female athletes in order to receive
federal funding, many colleges find that they can comply with Title IX only by
cutting men’s sports from the university.
An example of this occurred when Illinois State University had to cut
the entire male soccer and wrestling teams in order to remain in
compliance. Colleges having to cut some
of their male athletic teams argue that Title IX forces schools to put gender
statistics above the welfare of its own male student athletes.
All
sports are affected by Title IX and gender equity issues so solutions to
improve this problem have been made.
Some suggest is to end sex segregation in athletics altogether. Having just one football team, one
basketball team, one soccer team, would result in the best athletes making the
team and would end the sex discrimination in sports. However, others disagree.
To
understand the issue of gender equity in sports the branches of government,
levels of government, interest groups, civil liberties, civil
rights, affirmative action, and court cases are included in
this study guide.
Below
is a list of words that will help you to better understand the politics of
gender equity.
Affirmative action
A
policy designed to give special attention to members of some previously
disadvantaged group.
Bill of Attainder
A legislative act pronouncing a person guilty of
a crime without a trial and subjecting him to capital punishment.
Bill of Rights
The
first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution.
Defendant
In
a civil lawsuit, the person complained against; in a criminal case, the person
accused of the
crime.
Ex post facto law
Law that punishes
persons for acts committed before they were illegal.
Judicial review
The power of the courts
to determine whether acts of Congress are in accord with the U.S.
Constitution. Judicial review was established by John
Marshall and his associates in Marbury v.
Madison.
Law
An
act of Congress which has been signed by the president or passed over his veto.
Limited Government
A
government that provides boundaries for how much the government can interfere
with its
citizen’s lives.
Plaintiff
The
person who files the complaint in a civil lawsuit.
Pocket Veto
Occurs when the
President refuses to sign a bill during the last ten days Congress is in
session.
Veto
Occurs if the President
returns a bill to Congress.
Writ of Habeas Corpus
A
court order allowing a person to appear before a judge to determine whether he
is being held
lawfully.
Questions A
A1. What
is the NCAA?
A2. What
is the U.S. Department of Education a part of?
A3. How
do some people suggest ending sex discrimination in sports?
A4. Does
everyone agree to this suggestion?
A5. Name
seven political topics that are helpful in understanding the politics of gender
equity.
B.
History of Gender Discrimination
Women
in the United States have been fighting for equality in many areas. Their fight has been going on since the
beginning of the United States when the U.S. Constitution was put into
effect in 1789. The Constitution
was signed by Federalists George Washington, Alexander
Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and James Madison. The signing of the Constitution did not
guarantee women many rights including the right to vote. Women received the right to vote only with
the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment during Woodrow Wilson’s (D)
New Freedom, after the U.S. entered World War I in 1917.
Questions B
B1. What year was the U.S. Constitution put into
effect?
B2. Did Federalists or Anti-Federalists sign the
U.S. Constitution?
B3. Who signed the Constitution?
B4. What Amendment gave women the right to vote?
B5. What year did the U.S. enter World War I?
B6. Who was President during World War I?
B7. What was Woodrow Wilson’s slogan?
B8. What political party did Wilson belong to?
Even
with the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment, women still did not achieve the
equality they were seeking. The Civil
Rights Movement, led by Martin Luther King, that began in 1954 when
Dwight D. Eisenhower (R) was President, began to encourage women’s
demands. Women wanted equal protection
in all areas of life, such as job hiring, pay, affirmative action, and
reproductive choice. Woman made a step
towards this goal when the case Roe v. Wade legalized abortion during Richard
Nixon’s (R) presidency. However,
not everyone shared the pro-choice opinion with Roe. Those in interest groups such as Operation Rescue
continued to support the pro-life viewpoint.
These discriminations, as well as gender equity in sports, remain issues
today.
B9. What year did the Civil Rights Movement
begin?
B10.
Who led the Civil Rights Movement?
B11.
Who was President when the Civil Rights Movement began?
B12.
What case legalized abortion?
B13.
Who was President when abortion was legalized?
B14.
Name a pro-life interest group opposed to the Roe v. Wade decision.
C.
Lawmaking: Congress and
President
Congress
consists of two houses, the Senate and the House of
Representatives. Together they make
up the legislative branch, which makes the laws. Title IX of the Civil Rights Act, which
prohibits gender discrimination in college athletics, is an example of a
law. The Senate consists of 100 Senators,
two from each state, who serve a six-year term. The House of Representatives has 435
members known as Representatives, Congressmen, Congresswomen, and/or
Congresspersons that serve a two-year term. Congressmen represent their Congressional
District (CD), which is determined by a state’s population after they have
received a minimum of one representative.
Congress is responsible for proposing bills that may then become laws
with or without the signature of the President.
Questions C
C1. How many houses are in Congress?
C2. What are the houses of Congress?
C3. Congress belongs to which branch of
government?
C4. How long is a Senator’s term?
C5. Each state has how many Senators?
C6. Members of the Senate are known as Senators,
besides Representatives, name three
other names for members of the House
of Representatives?
C7. What determines the number of Representatives
from each state?
C8. How long is a Congressman’s term?
Once
the President signs a bill it becomes a law; however, if the President
returns the bill to Congress, an action known as a veto, Congress still
has the power to override the President’s veto with a two-thirds
majority vote of both houses.
Congress
cannot override pocket vetoes, which occur when the President refuses to
sign a bill during the last ten days Congress is in session. Title IX, which primarily prohibits gender
discrimination in college athletics, is part of the Educational Amendments to
the Civil Rights Act, which prohibits discrimination by agencies receiving
federal grants. Title IX started off as
a bill that was passed by Congress and then signed into law by President Richard
Nixon before he resigned due to the Watergate Scandal.
C9. What does a bill become once the President
signs it?
C10.
What majority vote is needed in order for Congress to override a veto?
C11.
What is the difference between a veto and a pocket veto?
C12.
What type of veto can Congress not override?
C13.
Who passed the Title IX bill?
C14.
Who signed Title IX into law?
C15.
Why did Nixon resign?
D. Interest Groups
An
interest group, or pressure group or non-governmental group, is
an organization that attempts to influence government actions so that members
of the group will benefit. Interest
groups target all branches of government, all levels of
government, all major political parties, and public opinion in
general. Interest groups have many
purposes, including trying to get laws passed that will benefit their
cause. The American Association of
University Women (AAUW) and the National Organization for Women (NOW)
are a couple interest groups concerned with gender equity. The AAUW lobbies and advocates for education
and equity, including such issues as sex discrimination, civil rights,
reproductive choice, affirmative action, and Title IX of the Civil Rights Act. The National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is another group that lobbies for
similar equity issues.
Questions D
D1. What is the purpose of an interest group?
D2. What is another name for an interest group?
D3. Which levels of government do interest
groups target?
D4. Which branches of government do interest
groups target?
D5. Which political parties do interest groups
target?
E. Three Branches of Government
The
government of the United States has three branches. The branches are the legislative, executive,
and judicial branches. The
legislative branch, which includes Congress, the state legislatures, and city
councils, is primarily responsible for making laws. The executive branch includes the President, governors, and
mayors and is responsible for putting into order policies or plans according to
the U.S. Constitution. The courts make
up the judicial branch and are responsible for interpreting the U.S. Constitution in order to insure that all cases
and decisions are made in accordance with the Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court has the power
of judicial review, which allows them to declare an act passed by
Congress unconstitutional.
Questions E
E1. How many branches are in the government?
E2. What are the branches of the government?
E3. Which branch do the courts belong to?
E4. What court has the power of judicial review?
E5. Which branch is the President a part of?
E6. Which branch is Congress a part of?
E7. What is the primary responsibility of the
legislative branch?
All
three branches are involved with gender equity issues. One year before the Cold War ended in
1989, Congress passed the Civil Rights Restoration Act after Ronald
Reagan (R) originally vetoed it, which outlawed sex discrimination
throughout an entire educational institution if any part of the institution
received federal funding. Another
example occurred during George Bush’s (R) presidency when the U.S.
Supreme Court, under the leadership of Chief Justice William Rehnquist (R),
further ruled that victims may be awarded monetary damages in sex
discrimination cases.
E8. What war ended in 1989?
E9. Name a President involved with gender
equity.
E10.
Who is the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court?
F. Five Levels of Government
There are five
levels in the United States government.
The five levels are the federal, state, county, city,
and special district levels. The latter three are also referred to as the
local governments. All levels
are
affected by gender
equity laws on issues including sex discrimination, reproductive choice, and
Title IX.
Four years after the end
of the Cold War President Bill Clinton (D) sent relief supplies
to Bosnia. In the
following year he
extended for five years the authorizations and appropriations for programs
under the
Elementary & Secondary
Education Act,
a bill first passed during the height of the Civil Rights
Movement and Cold
War. Clinton’s extension of the
Elementary & Secondary Act authorized grants to
conduct activities at
all educational levels as long as in compliance with Title IX.
Being in compliance
requires that an institution show that they have about equal percentage of
female
athletes and female
undergrads, demonstrate a “history and continuing practice” of increasing the
number
of teams and roster
spots for women, and demonstrate that the college fully and effectively
accommodates
the interests and
abilities of women. In the same year,
on the state level, an amendment to the California
Education Code (S. 262)
was made. The Los Angeles Community
College District, which includes Los
Angeles Harbor College,
is part of the special district level and is also affected by gender equity
issues.
Questions F
F1. How many levels of government are there?
F2. What are the levels of government?
F3. What three levels are referred to as the
local governments?
F4. How many levels do gender equity issues
affect?
F5. What law did President Bill Clinton extend
after the end of the Cold War?
F6. What country did Clinton send relief
supplies to?
F7. What level of government is the Los Angeles
Community College District a part of?
G. Civil Liberties and Civil Rights: Background
One
of the basic principles of the Constitution is limited government. A limited government sets boundaries for how
much a government can interfere in the lives of its citizens. Civil liberties and civil rights,
which guarantee a person certain protections that the government cannot
interfere with, are an important part of a limited government. These liberties and rights are stated in
three places.
The
first is the Constitution, which guarantees each person a writ of habeas
corpus, a court order allowing a person to appear before a judge to
determine whether he is being held lawfully.
The Constitution also prohibits ex post facto laws, laws that
punish persons for acts committed before they were illegal, and bills of
attainder, a legislative act pronouncing a person guilty of a crime without
a trial and subjecting him to capital punishment.
The
second source of civil liberties and civil rights is in the Bill of
Rights, the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution. The First Amendment states, “Congress shall
make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a
redress of grievances.”
The
third place is in other Amendments, especially the Fourteenth, which states
in section one, “nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
Questions G
G1. Does
the U.S. have a limited government or one that gives all power to the
government?
G2. What
two aspects of a limited government guarantee a person certain protections that
the government
cannot interfere with?
G3. What
is a writ of habeas corpus?
G4. Are
ex post facto laws guaranteed or prohibited by the Constitution?
G5. Are
bills of attainder guaranteed or prohibited by the Constitution?
G6. What
document contains the first ten amendments to the Constitution?
G7.
Other than the Bill of Rights, what amendment especially deals with
civil liberties and rights?
H. Civil Liberties
and Civil Rights: Court Cases
There have been many cases throughout the years
concerning civil liberties and rights.
One such case is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954). This case overturned the previous decision
of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), ruling that “separate cannot be
equal.” Brown, the plaintiff,
the person filing the complaint, was represented by Thurgood Marshall from
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
and won the case, which brought about the integration of all schools. Earl Warren (R) was Chief Justice at
that time.
Questions H
H1. What
was the 1954 case that said “separate cannot be equal?”
H2. What
case was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas?
H3. Who
was the plaintiff in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas?
H4. Who
was Brown’s lawyer?
H5. What
group did Thurgood Marshall belong to?
H6. Who
was Chief Justice during Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas?
Another case dealing with civil liberties and
rights is Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978). This case involved a student who was denied
admission to the University of California, Davis, Medical School due to affirmative
action, a policy designed to give special attention to disadvantaged
groups. Bakke, the student, was granted admission as a result of his case, but
affirmative action was also upheld.
This decision is an important one for women since affirmative action has
played a huge role in gender equity.
H7. What
case dealt with affirmative action?
H8. Was
Bakke granted or denied admission to UC Davis?
H9. Did
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke get rid of or uphold
affirmative action?
During Ronald Reagan’s (R) presidency,
the Supreme Court ruled in Grove City v. Bell (1984) that Title IX did not
cover entire educational institutions—only those programs directly receiving
federal funds. This meant that other
programs, such as athletics, that did not receive federal funds, were free to
discriminate on the basis of gender. However, fours years later Congress passed
the Civil Rights Restoration Act, which nullified the effects of the Grove City
ruling, outlawing sex discrimination throughout an entire educational
institution if any part of the institution received federal funding. Three years after the fall of the Berlin
Wall in 1989, George Bush sent troops to Somalia while
the Supreme Court further ruled that victims may be awarded monetary damages in
sex discrimination cases.
H10.
What party did Ronald Reagan belong to?
H11.
What President sent troops to Somalia?
H12.
What country did President George Bush send troops to?
H13. In
what year did the Berlin Wall fall?